North Macedonia became independent in 1991, following the breakup of Yugoslavia. The lone former Yugoslav republic not to engage in the wars of the 1990s, North Macedonia has nevertheless faced a number of existential issues. 2001 brought a nearly year-long armed interethnic conflict between the majority Macedonians and a sizable Albanian minority. More recently, the country has been roiled by allegations of government misconduct in the judiciary, public administration and election processes.

Croatia emerged from the violent dissolution of Yugoslavia to create a democratic political system and earn membership in the European Union and NATO. In the late 1990s, the country wrestled with post-war autocracy, but by 2000 it set forward to create a stable, pluralist political system in which parties alternated power, and a constitutional order that enshrined fundamental human rights to all citizens irrespective of ethnicity. However, Croatia grappled with rule of law and corruption problems, and experienced political instability as a result.

Albania began its democratic transition in 1991, setting out to establish a pluralist political system that protects and advances fundamental human rights. It has since joined NATO and is a candidate for European Union membership. Albanian politics, however, are highly polarized and prone to disruptive partisanship that impedes progress towards anti-corruption and rule-of-law reforms that are necessary for EU accession.

Ethnic tensions have dominated politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina since the Dayton Accords ended the inter-ethnic war in 1995. Since then, the country’s democratic transition has been complicated by post-conflict grievances, government corruption, unequal political rights among citizens, and a lack of political consensus on how the government should be structured. Efforts to address citizen concerns about unemployment, slow economic development, and corruption are often sidelined by ethnic and partisan interests.